This resource is hosted by the Nelson Mandela Foundation, but was compiled and authored by Padraig O’Malley. It is the product of almost two decades of research and includes analyses, chronologies, historical documents, and interviews from the apartheid and post-apartheid eras.
Introduction
Anthea J Jeffery
SOUTH AFRICAN INSTITUTE OF RACE RELATIONS JOHANNESBURG 1997
PUBLISHED BY THE SOUTH AFRICAN INSTITUTE OF RACE RELATIONS
Auden House, 68 De Korte Street
Braamfontein, Johannesburg, 2001 South Africa
Copyright South African Institute of Race Relations, 1997
PD 18/1996
ISBN 0-86982-453-8
While the Institute endeavours to publish accurate information and bona fide statements of opinion, it cannot be held liable in the event of the information being inaccurate or any opinion expressed being faulty.
Members of the media are free to reprint or report information, either in whole or in part, contained in this publication on the strict understanding that the South African Insti- tute of Race Relations is acknowledged. Otherwise no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electrical, mechanical, photocopy, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the publisher.
Cover design by Suzette Duby.
Map by Harry Sidiropoulos.
Acknowledgements
It is difficult to give adequate thanks to all who have made this study possible. Particular appreciation is due, at least, to the following:
Patricia Barnard, who laid the foundation for the study by beginning to develop a 'diary' of conflict in Natal;
Cheryl Chipps and Colleen Werth, who at different times took on the job of providing research and secretarial assistance;
Judi Hudson, who subsequently took on the task of developing a diary of conflict in Natal, and produced a comprehensive overview of events from the late 1980s to the early 1990s;
Prisca Nkosi, Alfred Nkungu, and other library staff at the Institute, who helped to develop the compendium of press reports on which this study has drawn;
Ellen Potter and Tamara Dimant, the Institute's librarians, who helped on many occasions to track down the information needed;
Elizabeth Sidiropoulos, who helped to check the final copy for the gremlins that might otherwise have gone undetected;
Jill Wentzel, who provided friendship and light relief through many times of difficulty; and
Sarah Zwane, who spent long, uncomplaining hours typesetting and correcting a text updated in many ways at many different times; as well as Connie Matthews, who assisted in this time-consuming task.
Special thanks are also due to Adrienne Verlaque-Napper, Daphne Lowenthal, and Minessa Rosman-and to all the other 'moms' who helped take care of Duncan.
Particular thanks are also due the respondents who gave so generously of their time and insights. They preferred, in most part, to remain anonymous.
For Duncan
Author's Note
This is a long book. No executive summary has been provided, however, as a brief account of this kind cannot do justice to the complexities of the conflict in KwaZulu/Natal. It is nevertheless possible to obtain a broad overview of the differing theories developed by the African National Congress (ANC) and the Inkatha Freedom Party (IFP) to explain the violence in the region by reading the introductory and concluding sections to each of Chapters Three to Ten inclusive.
The introductory section to Chapter Three, for example, outlines the theory developed by the ANC to explain the violence in the region during the 1980s. The concluding section of the chapter elaborates on the introduction, and describes the ANC's theory of the violence in more detail. It does so in the light of the evidence which appears to substantiate the ANC's perspective-and which forms the middle section of the chapter.
It is thus possible to obtain an overview of the ANC's perspective on conflict in Natal in the 1980s by reading the first and last sections of Chapter Three-though the ANC's theory is, of course, best understood by reading the evidence which supports it as well.
Chapter Four is structured in the same way. The introductory section outlines the theory developed by Inkatha to explain the violence in the 1980s, while the concluding section elaborates on this and describes Inkatha's theory of the violence in more detail. Again, it does so in the light of the evidence which seems to substantiate Inkatha's view-and which forms the middle section of the chapter.
Chapters Five to Ten follow the same format, and can likewise be used to obtain an overview of the differing perspectives of the ANC and the IFP. In all instances, it remains important to read the evidence which supports the rival theories as well-for it is this which contributes to understanding of the different viewpoints, and which provides a basis for informed assessment of their merits.
Contents
Chapter One
Introduction
Chapter Two
A Historical Background
Chapter Three
Collaboration and Repression in the 1980s
Chapter Four
The Strategy of 'Ungovernability' in the 1980s
Chapter Five
Destabilisation through 'Low Intensity Warfare' from 1990 to 1993
Chapter Six
Ensuring a Two-Sided Negotiating Table from 1990 to 1993
Chapter Seven
Subverting the Transition to Democracy in 1994
Chapter Eight
Destabilising the Opposition in 1994
Chapter Nine
Progress is Made But Problems Persist in 1995 and 1996
Chapter Ten
Increased Repression and Continued Attack in 1995 and 1996
Chapter Eleven
Other Views on Violence in KwaZulu/Natal from 1992 to 1994
Chapter Twelve
Further Allegations and Evidence About Violence in 1995 and 1996
Chapter Thirteen
The Questions that Remain Unanswered
Map
Bibliography
Detailed Contents
Chapter One
Introduction
Environmental factors
Social conditions
Economic circumstances
Political factors
Some views on the significance of socio-economic factors
The incidence of faction fighting
The methodology applied in this study
Chapter Two
A Historical Background
The liberatory strategies of the ANC alliance
The alternative approach adopted by Inkatha
The Soweto revolt in 1976
The ANC/Inkatha meeting in London in 1979
Postcript to the London meeting
Tensions intensify from early 1980
Chapter Three
Collaboration and Repression in the 1980s-The Viewpoint of the ANC Alliance
Introduction
Early collaboration
Repression of student protests in 1980
Killings at Ngoye in 1983
Compelling incorporation into KwaZulu in 1984
Deploying vigilantes in Durban in 1985
Continued vigilante action against the UDF in 1986
Forced recruitment sparks war in Pietermaritzburg in 1987
Continued vigilante attacks in 1988
Peace talks fail and violence intensifies in 1989
Explaining the violence in the 1980s
Chapter Four
The Strategy of 'Ungovernability' in the 1980s-The Viewpoint of Inkatha
Introduction
Consolidating power and then challenging apartheid
Safeguarding pupils against coercion in 1980
Violence at Lamontville and Ngoye in 1983
Violence in Pietermaritzburg and Durban in 1984
Riots in Durban in 1985
Intensifying 'ungovernability' in 1986
War breaks out in Pietermaritzburg in 1987
Continued conflict and a peace accord in 1988
Violence spreads and peace talks fail in 1989
Explaining the violence in the 1980s
Chapter Five
Destabilisation through 'Low Intensity Warfare' from 1990 to 1993-The Viewpoint of the ANC alliance
Introduction
Intensifying 'LIW' in 1990
Peace attempts thwarted in 1991
Exposing the surrogates in 1992
Patience finally rewarded in 1993
Explaining the violence in the early 1990s
Chapter Six
Ensuring a Two-Sided Negotiating Table from 1990 to 1993-The Viewpoint of the Inkatha Freedom Party
Introduction
Intensifying the campaign against Inkatha and KwaZulu in 1990
Increasing assassination of IFP leaders in 1991
Intensifying 'coercive mobilisation' in 1992
Paying lip service to peace while mobilising for war in 1993
Explaining the violence in the early 1990s
Chapter Seven
Subverting the Transition to Democracy in 1994-The Viewpoint of the ANC Alliance
Introduction
Denying free political activity in KwaZulu and Natal in early 1994
Violence persists in the post-election period in 1994
Explaining continued violence after the April election
Chapter Eight
Destabilising the Opposition in 1994-The Viewpoint of the Inkatha Freedom Party
Introduction
Destabilising the opposition in the run-up to elections
An unchanged agenda in the post-election period
Explaining continued violence after the April election
Chapter Nine
Progress is Made But Problems Persist in 1995 and 1996-The Viewpoint of the ANC Alliance
Introduction
The role of the Zulu monarch
The position of the chiefs in KwaZulu/Natal
The question of international mediation
A provincial constitution for KwaZulu/Natal
The Shell House issue
Pending local government elections
Continued conflict and increased security measures
Explaining continued conflict in 1995 and 1996
Chapter Ten
Increased Repression and Continued Attack in 1995 and 1996-The Viewpoint of the Inkatha Freedom Party
Introduction
The role of the Zulu monarch
The position of the chiefs in KwaZulu/Natal
The question of international mediation
A provincial constitution for KwaZulu/Natal
The Shell House issue
Pending local government elections
Continued conflict and increased repression
Explaining continued conflict in 1995 and 1996
Chapter Eleven
Other Views on Violence in KwaZulu/Natal from 1992 to 1994
Comments on the ANC's perspective
The IFP's comments on the ANC theory
Comments by others on the ANC theory
Comments on the IFP's perspective
The ANC's comments on the IFP theory
Comments by other commentators
Relevant reports of the Goldstone commission
First reports on Bruntville
Second interim report
Report on Renamo soldiers in KwaZulu
Third interim report
Final report on Bruntville
Report on the training of IFP supporters in the Caprivi in 1986
Report on illegal importation, distribution and use of firearms
Fourth interim report
Report on criminal political violence within the SAP, KZP and IFP
The main report
Report on hit squads in the KZP
Report on other causes of political violence
Report on the Shell House and other shootings in Johannesburg
Report on attacks on the SAP
Report on the KZP's attempted purchase of firearms from Eskom
Final report of the commission
ANC comments on the findings of the Goldstone commission
Comments by the SAP in submissions to the Goldstone commission
IFP comments on the findings of the Goldstone commission
Failure to investigate various massacres of IFP supporters
Failure to investigate the assassination of IFP office-bearers
Failure to investigate the role of Umkhonto in the violence
Reports for the TEC
TEC task team report into 'hit-squad' activity within the KZP
Report on training at the Mlaba camp
Comments by the ANC and the IFP on the TEC's reports
The IFP's response to the TEC report on hit squads
The IFP's response to the TEC report on training at the Mlaba camp
Chapter Twelve
Further Allegations and Evidence About Violence in 1995 and 1996
Introduction
The Mbambo trial
The Malan trial
The De Kock trial
Chapter Thirteen
The Questions that Remain Unanswered
Introduction
Questions regarding the ANC theory
Questions regarding the IFP theory
Conclusion
Map
Bibliography